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Updated December 29, 2006

SCHOOLS AS INFORMATION LITERATE
LEARNING COMMUNITIES

recognition of the need for information
formulation of questions that require information
identification of sources of information
development of successful search strategies
evaluation of information
organisation of information
presentation of information

Beyond these commonalities, Doyle (1992) notes that an information literate person is one who can use information in critical thinking and problem solving. One of the most widely recognised early attempts at formalising a model for problem solving was the Eigenberg/Berkowitz (1999) "Big 6 Skills", from which many of the more complex models are constructed.

However, despite the simplicity of its structure, this model fails to provide sufficient extension in consideration of the higher order skills. Quoting the work of Candy, Tinkler (1996) stated that information literacy was the ability : "to involve the higher order skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation, the ability to think critically, to construct meaning and reconstruct, [and] understanding in the light of new experiences."

Langford (1998) comments that there is a "multiplicity" of definitions, and suggests that information literacy may be considered in regard to various existing schools of thought, models or approaches.

There exist a number of information literacy process models (Washington Library Media Association [WLMA], c1998). In summary, these can be examined in terms of :

information seeking (as expounded by Kulthau),
information problem solving (as explained by Eisenberg/Berkowitz), or
research process (as per the Pitts/Stripling model).

Figure 1: Comparison of Models

by Jan Coleman of the Wellington (NZ) College of Education
Comparison of models of information literacy

Beyond the much publicised common features recognised by all the approaches to information literacy is the issue of Ethics. The University of Saskatchewan Libraries (1998) notes, in their Information Literacy Policy, the importance of crediting sources of information through appropriate citation.

Some further ethical considerations are:

an understanding of copyright and fair use,
avoidance of plagiarism,
awareness of censorship and the limitations this may place on information access, and
a respect for different points of view.

In the first three of the above ethical considerations, the teacher librarian represents a school's most informed member of staff. It is manifestly obvious that this indicates that the teacher librarian is the most logical person within the school to facilitate the development of practices and procedures to ensure these matters are disseminated throughout the school community.

The need for information literacy to be incorporated into teaching and learning programs is highlighted by analysis. Whilst the conceptualisation of information literacy is not a recent development (Ford 1994), the refining of this concept of has clarified its relationship with the research cycle. Cooper (c 1996), in a discussion on the research process noted that recent investigation indicated that students approached research in one of four ways. The "Compile Information" approach, exhibited by 74% of the subjects of the study, adopted a purely linear approach and did not undergo any higher order processes. The "Premature Thesis" approach (11%) was characterised by the development of a thesis or theme before doing any research. The "Linear Research" approach (10%) involved forming a thesis after research but before writing. The "Recursive Research" technique (5%) involved a cyclic approach in which research was ongoing, theses underwent amendment and writing included drafting and polishing. Thus, only 5% of the students in the study, those demonstrating a recursive approach, were engaging in information literate practices.

LEARNING COMMUNITIES

As the world of commerce and industry becomes more dynamic, complex and globally competitive (Fullerton, c 1996) there is a corresponding need to develop an environment in which individuals demonstrate deeper understanding and a broader knowledge base, where continuous improvement is achieved through a commitment to learning. The type of environment which fosters these outcomes known as a learning community.

There are numerous interpretations, perspectives and elucidations of the concept of a learning community. Various authorities provide inventories, with commonalities being evident. These include:

participative policy making (Matzdorf et al , 1997; Watkins & Marsick, c 1998, Bennett, 1998)
a learning climate (Banks 1995, Matzdorf et al , 1997)
shared values and beliefs (Santos, c 1998)
team learning (Santos, c 1998; Watkins & Marsick, c 1998)
self-development for all policy holders (Matzdorf et al , 1997, Bennett 1998)
builds and develops collaborative relationships ( Addleson, c1998, Bennett 1998)
management is situational not functional (Addleson c 1998, Santos c 1998)
stake holders identify their "own reality" and develop strategies to alter this state (Senge 1990, 13)
continuous transformational change (Lonsdale, c1998; Fishman, 1997, Maddleso, c 1998, Watkins & Marsick, c 1998)

Senge (1990) has developed a comprehensive suite of strategies based on the work of Argyris and Schon (1978). Encapsulated in Senge's book The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation, his theories are frequently cited.

Senge has constructed a paradigm based on five "disciplines" :
Systems Thinking: a scheme for identifying patterns, issues and situations, with the attendant development of strategies for change. However, while the behaviour of systems follows common principals, the nature of these systems is still being discovered and articulated (Senge 1994, 89). It is with concern that Addleson (1998)indicates that "systems thinking" may reinforce current managerial practices, as it does not encourage or empower individuals with any significantly different manner to the current practice.

Personal Mastery: a continual clarification and deepening of personal vision, with the focusing of energies to create improvement, of viewing reality objectively.

Mental Models: deeply ingrained assumptions and generalisations that may act as a barrier to improvement. Kienholz (1999) observes that these "mind sets" may exist at a subconscious level, and thus require reflection and inquiry to identify and amend. Self-transedence (Pankow 1976, 20), the ability to change one's point of view, requires metonia (Senge 1994, 12) , a change of these mental models, to overcome the defensive routines (Agryris 1991, 101) necessary for the creation of a learning organisation.

Shared Vision: to bind individuals within an organisation together by defining a concept of potentials that are possible. Moore (1997), in a study of information literacy among primary schools, noted that where information literacy had not been successfully integrated into the learning program, there was a "difference in the clarity and coherence" of the vision as espoused by the school, and the understanding of the staff regarding the nature of information literacy, the role of the library and the principles of resource based learning. Hames (1994, 235) states that "vision" challenges prevailing "wisdom" whilst communicating meaning and instilling confidence.

Team Learning: as learning is a social activity, the development of appropriate mechanisms to facilitate communication will engender meaningful experiences from which new skills emerge, and existing skills are enhanced.

The first three of these disciplines have application for the individual, whilst the last two require group application. Thus, it is possible for all members of a school community to practice these disciplines, and collaborate to achieve the final two outcomes.

In commenting on The Fifth Discipline , Fullerton (c 1996) notes that it is necessary for all five of the disciplines to be developed as an ensemble. The integration of any less than all five will not be effective. It is the mastery of all five of these disciplines which distinguishes a learning organisation from a controlling organisation.

Innovation is a primary characteristic of learning communities. However, Addleson (1998) notes that inspiration is a product of an individual, and is singular in context and circumstances which are not reproducible. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some individuals are more gifted than others in the production of innovative invention, and these must be encouraged by the construction of appropriate formal and informal support mechanisms.

Metaphors for learning organisations abound. Unlike the mechanistic metaphor for organisational structure, learning organisations have been referred to as "information ecologies" (Nardi 1998) and "social communities" (Addleson 1998).

However, in a learning organisation a paradox exists in that to achieve order, control must be surrendered (Fishman, 1997). By practising participatory decision making, management is no longer dictatorial in nature, but gains by achieving greater commitment from the stake holders through empowerment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INFORMATION LITERATE SCHOOL

In defining an information literate school, particular attributes are evident. McKenzie (1998a) notes that the three major components all contribute to the ability of members of the community being able to learn independently. The components nominated by McKenzie are defined as:

Prospecting: an ability to navigate through information to find the most relevant sources for the information need,
Interpreting: being able to translate information to fulfil that need, and
Creativity: developing new insights from the information that has been identified and interpreted.

Henri (1995) lists a variety of characteristics for identifying an information literate school community, which include:

the existence of an information policy
the existence of an information technology plan
identification of benchmarks for information competencies
authentic assessment is undertaken in identifying the development of information skills
a school wide appreciation of the role of the teacher librarian
the appointment of a tertiary qualified teacher librarian
mechanisms for supporting the professional development of information literacy
information skills are taught and learned in context and across the curriculum
learning contexts are varied and available in a variety of formats
a significant percentage of school funds are allocated for the provision of information services
staff collaboration is practised in a meaningful, purposeful and voluntary way
student collaboration is practised
negotiation of information related tasks is practised by teachers and students, and
an awareness of the information demands on each student.

The Information Policy

The policies and practices of any institution to a large extent govern the functioning of the organisation. The Information Policy is central to the development of an information literate educational institution. In the event that such a policy is not in place, the teacher librarian is ideally situated to initiate discussions on the benefits of formulating such a document. However, it is vital to the success of this innovation that the teacher librarian ensures that the onus of responsibility does not lay solely on that person. As it is a school-wide initiative, it is necessary the other stake holders to participate in all phases of the policy development, implementation, assessment and any necessary amendments.

Should the document already exist, the teacher librarian, in the capacity of the school's "information professional", should ensure that the implementation, ongoing assessment, and any identified deficiencies of the policy be addressed in a timely, appropriate manner by all the stakeholders.

The Information Technology Plan

Information literate communities demonstrate widespread competencies in using electronic resources to fulfil their information requirements. In an information literate environment, stake holders are provided with opportunities to master the skills needed to access information in all formats (University of Saskatchewan Libraries, 1998). In the current knowledge climate, many sources of information are only available in digital format. These may be internet based, available from an online database or housed within the school's physical library on CD-ROMs or in school-based databases. Further, budgetary considerations may produce a reliance on information in electronic format rather than print-based material, as may be the case with reference material such as encyclopaedias.

To support future applications of technology competencies necessary for information literacy, an information literate school will demonstrate its appreciation for the expodental growth of knowledge access available by technological developments by formulating a plan, with an appropriate budgetary allocation, to allow for future contingencies.

Weiser (1991) observes that the "most profound technologies" are those that disappear, weaving themselves into "the fabric of everyday life". This seamless integration of technology and work practice is essential for organisational learning (Laudon 1989) in addition to the creation of access to information. Computer applications fall into three groups; business operations, information repositories and personal support systems (Benjamin & Blunt, 1992), and each has a critical function with both a learning community and an information literate community.

Teacher librarians are currently at the forefront of technological development (Association for Teacher Librarians in Canada, c 1997). Nowhere else within the school environment has technology made such a significant difference to work practices as in the school library. Well beyond library automation, the teacher librarian now exists in a knowledge environment characterised by innovation, expansion and rapid development. This climate has provided the teacher librarian with the technical competence and insight necessary to instruct students and mentor staff in these skills. The school library currently provides services and technologies to gain access to information (Curriculum Corporation 1993, 4). With computer networking (McKenzie, 1998a) within schools via LANs and between schools and systems via WANs becoming increasingly more common, the teacher librarian is ideally placed to lead staff development in this domain.

Benchmarks for Information Competencies

Ford (1994) notes the increasing rigour that is being used to assess information competencies. The formal adoption of Information Literacy Standards by the American Library Association (1998) provides benchmarks for all educational institutions. However, the University of Calgary (1999) notes that these ALA standards do not consider the variety of information sources, particularly visual and aural. In consideration of different learning styles (Banks, 1995) and Gardner's multiple intellegencies (McKenzie, 1999), this is to be considered a serious oversight.

McKenzie (1998b), in collaboration with The Oak Harbour School, Washington, has developed a proforma for the objective assessment of information skills. Assigning a numerical value to levels of mastery in individual aspects of tasks related to the research cycle, student progress may be charted in order to address individual remediation in specific aspects where such a need is identified.

Assessment

Information literate schools go beyond the generation of marks and grades, for inclusion in student reports, as the primary (and frequently sole) form of assessment. In developing assessable portfolios of learning experiences, students are provided with a frame work for reflective practices. Additionally, using metacognitive processes under the direction of the teacher, students are able to participate in the identification of any deficiencies in their research methods. Once armed with this information, the teacher librarian can address the specific issues distinguished by this means.

The use of self-assessment is particularly beneficial to constructivist learning (Stripling, 1999), serving to promote metacognition. In identifying strengths and weaknesses in learning outcomes, students may undergo remediation in either a self-directed fashion, or with assistance from a learning facilitator.

McKenzie (1998a) notes that information literate schools demonstrate a wide variety of teaching strategies. By extension, assessment tasks appropriate to the content and format must be formulated to provide an "authentic" appraisal in which any marks or grades generated reflect the degree to which the student has progressed within specific criteria. This replaces the more subjective marking system that has traditionally been undertaken, and the school's teacher librarian may contribute to the assessment process by utilising their specialised knowledge in assisting the assessing teacher to identify inappropriate sources or other deficiencies.

The Role of the Teacher Librarian

For many students in NSW government schools, their first introduction to the concept of information literacy occurs during their "library orientation". In a secondary school, they may be shown where the reference books are located, how to operate the OPAC, the procedures required for accessing non-shelved material such as CD-ROMS or online services and how to complete the process of borrowing a resource from the library. Many high schools have a program of "library instruction" that includes information skill application. However, as Henri (1995, 25) notes, it is vital that information skills be taught in context and across the curriculum, thereby rendering the aforementioned "library instruction" program ineffectual.

Agreeing with this view, Stripling (1995, 164) notes this specialist teacher librarian perspective for the learning cycle as related to the research cycle. The teacher librarian is ideally placed to facilitate the integration of information skills across the curriculum in schools with a collaborative climate. However, Mancall et al (1986, 20) indicates the need for teacher librarians to become more cognisant of the research on the way that learners, both adult and child, process information and participate in learning experiences.

A school's ability to produce independent learners depends largely on the "richness of the school's library resource services" (Henri 1995, 25). Although the development of the dynamic educational role for the school library is a whole school responsibility (Curriculum Corporation 1993, iii), it is the teacher librarian who is charged with the duty in ensuring the resources are current, relevant, appropriate and accessible.

Through the process of curriculum mapping (Henri 1995, 25), the teacher librarian is able to assess the school's library collection to ensure that there are sufficient resources to provide for the information needs of the school community. Collection management enables currency of materials to be maintained by removal of obsolete resources. Library management functions, such as ensuring an appropriate mechanism is operational for borrowing procedures, enables the resources of the library to remain as accessible as possible. User education supports the school library's accessibility outcomes, and extends the acquisition of information from sources beyond the school library's physical boundaries. Thus, teacher librarians, by virtue of their traditional, if outdated, role are currently contributing to the information literacy outcomes of the school community.

However, there is great scope for extension of the teacher librarian's role in an information literate school community. In New South Wales government schools, the role of the teacher librarian is mandated by three specific documents, Libraries in NSW Government Schools: Policy Statement ( NSW Department of Education [DOE], 1987), Information Skills in the School (NSW Department of Education, 1990), and the Handbook for School Libraries (NSW Department of School Education [DSE] , 1996). In each of these documents, the teacher librarian is directed to participate in specific information literacy activities.

Whilst the first of the above policy documents now appears somewhat dated in content and format, it is interesting to note the instruction that the school library's practices should conform to the school's goals (DOE 1987, 3). In an information literate environment, where an information policy is in operation, it is therefore self-evident that the library's activities (and thus the teacher librarian as an individual) will contribute in numerous ways to the outcomes as stated in the school's information policy document.

At the most basic level, the teacher librarian provides a "physical environment [which] should be both attractive and welcoming to the students and staff" (DOE 1987, 1) in addition to managing the information resource collection. Whilst this may at first appear to be too self-evident to consider a relevant consideration in this discussion, Hill (1995, 48) notes that the creation of a learning environment is vital to the success of educational reform. Although Hill (ibid) is referring to the culture of the school, it is important not to overlook the physical expression of that culture.

Progressively higher levels of contribution are indicated in all the documents, mainly concerned with collaboration, shared decision making and development of vision. However, much of the literature indicates numerous barriers to the successful application of these more complex interactions.

Qualifications of the Teacher Librarian

Information literacy is the foundation of the teacher librarian's involvement in the the school's teaching and learning programs. Information literacy is embedded in every syllabus in each key learning area (DOE 1996, 8). Frequently, unqualified teachers are appointed to teacher librarian positions within the NSW government school system. Although these teachers may well demonstrate exemplary practices within the classroom, they are not cognisant of collection management foundations, which are vital in supporting the curriculum outcomes in addition to addressing the recreational and informational needs of the school community. They are largely untrained in aspects of information science such as budgeting, organisation of resources, collaborative practices, and resource-based learning.

Similarly, there is a disturbing trend in education, particularly on the northern American continent, to replace teacher librarians with librarians, library technicians or clerical workers. Whilst these decisions are based on budgetary considerations, this practice will do no less than destroy the school library's primary purpose in supporting the curriculum. Without specific teacher training, a librarian cannot appreciate curriculum implications, cater to different learning styles, or collaborate with teaching colleagues. Additionally, in NSW government schools, library staff devoid of recognised teacher qualifications cannot administer current NSW departmental regulations regarding student supervision - thereby impeding independent study, the ultimate goal of information literacy.

"A qualified teacher librarian is defined as a person who holds recognised teaching qualifications and qualifications in librarianship, defined as eligible for professional membership of the Australian Library and Information Society (ALIA). These qualifications ensure that the teacher librarian is both an educator and an information manager with integrated understandings from both of the areas. As a result, a knowledge of the curriculum, teaching strategies and learning styles is combined with knowledge of the resources and information access systems. This enables teacher librarians to undertake an active role in curriculum design, support and implementation."
(Curriculum Corporation 1993, 42)

However, in certain circumstances, a school may have no option but to elect a member of their teaching staff to fill a teacher librarian vacancy. In remote or undesirable locations, this practise is preferable to closing the school's library. Some educational systems, such as the Parramatta Education Office, have addressed this issue by requiring all untrained personnel in teacher library positions to obtain their formal tertiary qualifications. Introducing this scheme in 1999, the Parramatta CEO supports this policy by funding and time release. In 2003, the Hunter District Teacher Librarian Network brought this anomoly to the attention of the NSW Department of Education and Training.

In order to support the information literate learning community, the unqualified teacher librarian may undergo professional development in order to conform to the ALIA requirements. It should be noted that the NSW DET 6 month, in-house training scheme is not recognised by ALIA. Whilst providing some basic skills in library operation, it is not characterised by the depth and scope of tertiary, specialist instruction and therefore should only be considered as an intermediate step to gaining accredited qualifications. By following this alternative pathway, the teacher librarian may model self-improvement and the development of professional mastery.

The Association for Teacher Librarianship in Canada (1997) notes that recent research has indicated that "integrated library programs' impact positively on collaboration, leadership and student achievement when the teacher librarian has experience as a classroom teacher, qualifications in teacher librarianship, and works collaboratively with teachers to integrate information problem-solving skills and strategies in the ongoing instructional program.

Professional Development

The need for professional development in any organisation goes well beyond that of being able to achieve higher efficiency in a designated area. Senge (1990, 14) differentiates between "survival learning" which is concerned with the attainment of skills necessary to continue at the current level of operation, and "generative learning" where attributes are developed for enhancing and progressing to higher levels of operation. Professional development achieves a focus on the "big picture", the progression of personal mastery, and the construction of a personal vision.

Unfortunately, in a period dominated by economic rationalism, budgetary allocations frequently inhibit the use of formal development opportunities. Once again, the teacher librarian is able to facilitate informal professional development by the circulation of professional reading to colleagues and educate teaching staff regarding issues such as copyright, intellectual property rights and Freedom of Information (Henri 1995, 27) with very little financial outlay.

Further, the teacher librarian may model professional development by engaging in higher education, attendance at conferences, and networking both within and beyond the physical boundaries of the school. However, this modelling will not be effective unless the teacher librarian is prepared to publicise these endeavours - either formally via presentations or notification in the school's in-house publications, or informally during social interactions.

Resources

The practice of resource based learning provides the opportunity to acknowledge individual differences in learning styles. A need to pursue these resources "beyond the classroom" is noted by Hancock (1993), with the school library playing a crucial role in providing the material. The teacher librarian currently provides not only the appropriate resources, but also services and instruction to support access to the resources.

Further, resource selection may consider sources beyond the physical boundaries of the school. Computer networks, telecommunications, local and wider community resources and service agencies are also available to assist in accessing information. The teacher librarian, in the capacity of information specialist, is able to assist in the facilitation of this access.

Wells and Cheng-Wells (1992) note that an information literate community is characterised not only by "inquiry, reading and writing" as learning activities, but also by the availability of ample reading resources for free reading. The selection of such material is one of the current priorities for teacher librarians. Research by Krashen (1996) supports the thesis that extended opportunities for reading improve comprehension outcomes, necessary for successful engagement in all learning goals in general, and to information literacy in particular.

Collaborative Practices

Information literate communities and learning organisations share collaboration as one of their primary characteristics. These collaborative relationships are sustained between individuals within an organisation, groups within an organisation, groups and individuals from the organisation with groups and individuals external to the organisation.

One of the key relationships required for a successful information literate learning community is that between the principal and the teacher librarian (Hay & Henri, 1995). It is this relationship that determines whether or not the teacher librarian is able to proactively engage in activities that provide support for the school's information literacy policies.

Individual teacher commitment to the process of information literacy is vital to successful outcomes. However, it is with a team approach that effective practices are undertaken. Collaboration assists in the removal of barriers between subjects and people (Hill 1995, 48).

In a K-6 environment ("elementary school") an individual teacher collaborates with other teachers of similar grades to formulate a teaching program that incorporates an information literacy paradigm. At secondary level, faculties co-ordinate their subject teaching programs in a similar manner. In both of these scenarios, deferral to a specialist teacher such as a support teacher (learning difficulties) or English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher for students with identified difficulties is not uncommon. In NSW government schools it is rare for the teacher librarian to be consulted in the case of a student identified "at risk" due to information literacy issues.

Further, the failure to consult the teacher librarian regarding the incorporation of information literacy skills into a teaching program is a further issue for consideration. It would be expected that in an information literate school community, this practice would be widespread. Notification by the teacher librarian of their availability for both individual student counselling in research skills, and faculty consultation in program planning, is indicated for the development of an information literate educational program.

Negotiation

With the wide range of resources available for accessing information, an appreciation of different learning styles and great latitude for the delivery of content, the teacher and student in an information literate environment negotiate assessment tasks to ensure that the learning experience is more meaningful to the learner. The teacher librarian may be consulted by either the teacher or the student as to availability and suitability of resources.

In addition to the negotiation of tasks, Project Better (Maryland School District c 1998) identified the fact that information literate schools conducted practices for the negotiation of individual topics for study. Again, the teacher librarian's specialised knowledge of the school's library collection is able to supplement the classroom teacher's subject knowledge to ensure the existence of appropriate information resources.

Negotiation between all stakeholders occurs within an information literate school community. Hargreaves (1993, 16) notes that schools must be "satisfactory workplaces" before they can achieve improvements in student outcomes. By negotiating both with the school's principal and with teaching colleagues or the teacher librarian, all stakeholders can contribute to an improvement in the workplace environment.

SCHOOLS AS INFORMATION LITERATE LEARNING COMMUNITIES

From the previous discussion of both information literate schools and of learning communities, it can be seen that a convergence of these two ideologies is forming, with common characteristics, practices and outcomes.

In an information literate learning community, partnerships are formed between principals, teachers and teacher librarians (Association for Teacher Librarianship in Canada, 1997) and is supported by the organisational structure both within the school and beyond.

In an information literate environment, the skills developed are applicable to any situation (Hancock, 1993). The school situation, with its Key Learning Areas clearly defined by subject differentiation at the secondary level, provides an opportunity for a cross-curriculum, contextual, integrated approach to information literacy applications. This counteracts the information dependency of traditional educational practices.

However, in order to achieve an information literate environment, teachers must surrender outdated, counterproductive views of teachers as dispensers of information, in favour of practice which acknowledges the teacher as facilitator of learning experiences. Hirose (1992) states that the practice of lower order learning, typified by "undisciplined, associative and inert" behaviour actually inhibits the learning process.

The recognition of the importance of the concept of a learning organisation (Curriculum Corporation, 1999) by the state, territory and Commonwealth Ministers of Education has resulted in the endorsement of a new set of national goals for Schooling in the 21st Century. The formulation of the Adelaide Declaration in April 1999 identified the need for a "commitment to collaboration" for the purposes of "strengthening schools as learning communities". However, it appears that beyond academic circles, there has been little discussion of the implications of this document, nor the development of strategic plans to incorporate the recommendations into educational practise.

It is interesting to compare the current K-12 learning environment with the organisation known as The University of the Third Age (U3A). Exemplifying the concept of an information literate learning community , the U3A (1999) is based on the ideology that the First Age is childhood and dependence, the Second Age is that spend in homemaking and workplace endeavours, with the Third Age previously known as "retirement". The learners at U3A collaborate with their peers in developing learning relationships independent of assessment, vocational considerations, or competitive issues. This global educational institution is without physical boundaries, totally comprised of lifelong, independent learners. Staffed almost entirely by volunteers who ask no more than the privilege of participating in the education of others, it offers a glimpse of possibilities for education of the future. Neither requiring nor granting awards, this organisation is a university in the original sense of the word; a collaborative community existing solely for the purpose of education.

Schools are not currently learning organisations (Fullan 1993, 42). The rapid introduction of ill-conceived changes without consideration to the effect on individual parts of the system or the system as a whole (Senge 1990, 15) has resulted in a piecemeal approach (Henri & Hay, 1994) that has resulted in a fragmentation rather than a coagulation of the organisation. Senge (1990, 13) states that the cause is attributable to policies that consider the symptoms rather than the underlying causes of identified issues that require addressing.

GLOBAL PRACTICES

Internationally, there have been many initiatives proposed and introduced concerning the integration of information literacy into the curriculum (Ford, 1994). Enumerating examples of these initiatives, Ford (ibid ) states:

Netherlands: Since the early 1990s, information literacy has been taught in the Netherlands in "nearly all" secondary schools.
South Africa: A report prepared by the Ford Foundation has recommended information literacy pilot projects to promote economic development by providing information to users in the form they want and need.
England: At the higher education level, the British Library commissioned three studies during the 1980s to determine practices in information skills training.
China: The central government in 1987 issued a mandate that all academic libraries must provide user instruction to students.
France: There is a government body to coordinate functional literacy.

Further, in Korea, a curriculum has been developed in which teacher librarians facilitate an independent course at senior high school level, being the first in the world (Hahm et al, 1998) to formally institute such an approach at legislative level.

In Australia, Mayer (1992) generated the report Putting general education to work: The key competencies report. Commissioned by the National Board of Employment, Education and Training, the report identified information literacy as a key competencies. To date, none of the recommendations made in the report have been adopted to any significant extent.

BENEFITS OF SCHOOLS AS INFORMATION LITERATE LEARNING COMMUNITIES

Educational

In the development of an information literate learning community, the responsibility for learning passes to the individual learner. Hancock (1993) notes that this devolution of responsibility produces greater retention of information and skills. The benefit of this retention to the teacher is multifaceted; less time spend 'going over old ground', an opportunity to develop and deliver enriched learning experiences, release from ineffective group instruction with a greater latitude for individual remediation.

As potential sources of information become more diverse in format, increase in volume and decrease in authority, students require development in ability to think rationally and logically. The role of the teacher librarian becomes more central to ensuring students are able to derive meaning from the information (Association for Teacher Librarianship in Canada, 1997), and provides leadership in the appropriate use of new technology.

Teacher librarians have long appreciated the variety and format from which information may be obtained. Classroom teachers, by virtue of their tertiary education, may have knowledge of multiple information sources. However, for those teachers who may not have attended a tertiary institution in the last decade, there may be a lack of awareness of the most recent developments. Students require appropriate instruction to develop "an awareness of the rich variety of information sources" (Hancock, 1993) that are available in the school environment in order to fulfil their current and future information needs. By effective collaboration between teachers, teacher librarians and students, a mutual benefit will ensue in professional development of teachers, effective partnerships for teacher librarians, and a broader knowledge base for students.

Vocational

In the current "information age", a new economy has emerged in which knowledge is traded as a marketable commodity (Tinkler, 1996). In this global knowledge economy, teachers and trainers are part of the knowledge work force trading in the "new currency".

Those who have experienced participation in an information literate learning community have increased employment opportunities. In a recent notification of vacancy, Plattsburgh State University (1999) specified the need for the applicants to "place a premium" on initiative, creativity and commitment to working in a shared-decision making environment.

It is observed that a common complaint from employers is that entry level employees (Hirose, 1992) frequent lack the reasoning and critical thinking abilities needed to process and refine information. Fullan (1993, 45) notes that current "employablilty" is based on the ability to communicate effectively, the demonstration of positive attitudes and behaviours, plus the ability to work in a group situation. Education within a school that is an information literature learning community will better serve students in their vocational endeavours.

Societal

In presenting three scenarios for the future in Australia, Lepani (1998) considers the possibility of a continuation of the current social structure with a large middle class continuing contemporary work practices; a transformation where 20% of the work force is gainfully employed using information literacy skills; or a post-modern culture of "techno-spiritualism" where "cyborg extensions of human capabilities" abound, enabling all to participate in some way. It would appear that the principle determinant of these options is the integration of information literacy into instructional programs, where delivery is conducted in an environment which represents a learning community.

Lepani (1998) supports this contention with statistical evidence from NSW which indicates that professional level employment has trebled over the last decade while blue collar jobs have remained stagnant . Simultaneously, white collar, unskilled employment is becoming scarce.

Rifkin (1995, 25) suggests that an era where an employee's worth is determined by the market value of their labour is coming to an end. Creativity is replacing knowledge base in determining "value", whilst ability to work in a team environment is a prerequisite for many managerial positions.

"People who are aware of information services and sources, who have the confidence to approach them, and the flexibility to use them, have the basis for a better quality of life than those who are unable to pursue their information needs".
(New South Wales Department of School Education, 1990, 1).

As western society witnesses a lengthening of lifespan, with an accompanying increase in leisure time (Hancock, 1993) the skills developed during involvement in an information literate learning environment promote the outcomes of lifelong learning.

Further, the development of critical awareness allows an evaluation of information to identify bias, deception and misinformation. Although members of wider society may not be actively involved in pursuing formal further education, they will ultimately benefit by being able to fulfil their personal information needs in evaluating mass media sources.

Ford (1994) notes that without a firm grounding in information literacy by all citizens, society will "pay a heavy price" due to the social and economic drain of members of the community who lack information literacy competencies and the ability to function in a learning organisation.

BARRIERS TO DEVELOPING AN INFORMATION LITERATE LEARNING COMMUNITY

Perceptions of Stake holders

Lincoln (1987) observes that students have a firm view that school work involves "reading and writing" and where classroom practice is negotiated and participatory, the students' perception is that of not actually engaging in learning. Similarly, parents expect that their children will spend much of their school time in writing-based activities, as a result of the parents' own learning experiences. Potential employers to a great extent still require a subjective assessment based on examinations for lower level employment, prior to promotion to higher level positions requiring higher order skills. The combination of these perceptions creates a barrier to the development of a school as an information literate learning community, where the amount of written work, the format of examinations and classroom experiences diverge from the ineffective, if traditional, practices.

Teacher perceptions also create barriers. Collaborative practices, perhaps the cornerstone of learning communities , are often inhibited in the school situation by classroom teacher practice. Classroom teachers perceive their role as one of autonomous practice ( Henri 1996, 21), without input, direction or observation of a colleague; a self imposed "isolation" (Smith & Scott, 1990). Further, anecdotal evidence suggests that in a secondary school, the teacher librarian is the least welcome of colleagues for collaborative practices due to the perception that they are not 'real' teachers but 'mere' librarians.

Matzdorf et al (1997) note that prior learning experiences have a profound effect on future learning experiences. As teachers are a product of the existing system in which many learning experiences were unpleasant, ineffective or irrelevant, these perceptions of learning will present a barrier to professional development for some.

Reduced funding for formal programs in professional development have resulted in an increase in in-house instruction, using members of the school community. Matzdorf et al (1997) further note that there is a common perception common to all professions that development is not valid unless it is structured and formal. Further, there is a danger in using teachers to deliver developmental instruction to other teachers in the school situation. Having been conditioned to undertaking instruction with children, it is vital to ensure that any teaching staff conducting professional development programs are cognisant of the principles of adult learning.

Teacher librarians may assist in overcoming many of these negative perceptions by supporting new structures and building wider networks (Hill 1995, 49) both within and beyond the school.

Societal Effects

Educational reforms are "hard to conceive and even harder to put into practice (Fullan 1993, 46). Societal problems such as conflicting priorities, frequent lack of parental guidance, and the necessity for part time work, are beyond the control of educational institutions. The numerous unsuccessful attempts at educational reform failed due to an inability to focus on the "important issues" (ibid).

Further, Lewis (1992) notes that successful collaborative practice, particularly those that address the school-to-workplace transition, are "scattered and idiosyncratic" as there is insufficient communication between these two major components of society.

School Culture

When a classroom teacher is asked at a social occasion "what they do", they are most likely to respond with a job description such as kindergarten teacher, science teacher or school principal. The lack of identification with their organisation (Senge, 1990, 17) is a reflection of their self identity being disengaged from the purpose of the organisation.

Schools, perhaps more so than other organisations, are characterised by "balkanisation" ( Fullan 1993, 82) created by faculties at secondary level, and Year teaching cohorts at K-6 level. These factions are often insular in nature, and may have cliques within each group. However, Nonaka (1988) notes that in order to grow, the coexistence of several subcultures is necessary to generate "creative conflict". Senge (1992) agrees with this appraisal, and discusses this at length using the terminology "creative tension".

As with every culture, there are "unwritten rules" (Matzdorf et al , 1997) which dictate protocols. This is no less true in a school situation. Teachers are loathe to make comments or value judgments on colleagues' practices, despite the benefits that such feedback may bring. Similarly, innovation is frequently met with passive resistance rather than open discussion due to the "unwritten rule" of refraining from comment.

In this regard, the teacher librarian's isolation (Lashway 1998) and autonomy may serve as a buffer to resistance. By initialising innovative practices (Smith & Scott 1990, 19), the teacher librarian may instil confidence in others to investigate such creativity. Further, in developing their own communications skills (Hill 1995, 49) the teacher librarian may model positive behaviours to the other members of the school community and thus contribute reducing the barrier that school culture creates.

Organisational Change

All organisations, including schools, have concerns that are addressed by attempts at organisational renewal. Productivity (numbers in classes, teaching periods per day), cost effectiveness (global budgeting was introduced in 1989 in NSW government schools), capital utilisation (witness the mobility of the "demountable" classrooms in NSW government schools), market orientation (increasingly higher enrolments in non-government schools, together with an increasingly greater proportion of "out-of-area" enrolments, demonstrating that pupils are exercising their right of choice) provide the driving force for reform.

The process of change is itself is a barrier to achieving change. Any disturbance to the status quo is likely to create friction, and Fullan (1993, 77) cautions that this conflict is inevitable but necessary. Without dissent, discussion will not ensue. This raises the possibility that stakeholders in the change will not understand the implications of and for the change, and thus will not effectively participate in the process of change.

The necessity of dialogue rather than debate is noted (Lashway, 1998) as the key to successful "group dynamics". It must be emphasised that practice must concentrate on listening, suspending judgment and seeking common understanding.

The importance of vision statements in the creation of organisational change is paramount. However, Fishman (1997) notes that the effects of such statements is often lost to the practicalities of "positivist, protectivist, control-orientated " paradigms.

Dunning (1997) remarks that the necessity for closure is one of the most basic of human needs. The last decade has witnessed numerous attempts at reform within the NSW government school system (Carrick's Report, Scott's "School Renewal" , McGaw's "Effective Schools"). Fullan (1993, 42) observes that "irregular waves of change and episodic projects" produce a fragmentation of effort and a "grinding overload". With progressive, continual change there can be no closure. Continual gradual improvement or dramatic rapid initiatives are equally unsettling to the human psyche, and therefore are frequently resisted. In discussing innovation in the workplace, Carlopio (1998, iii) notes that resistance to change is more pronounced in Australia than countries such as USA or Japan. Referring to "reform fatigue", Carlopio (ibid ) comments on the counterproductive nature of ongoing modifications.

This presents something of a paradox for a learning organisation, where continual improvement is the ultimate goal. An "interplay" (Bennett 1998) between forces for change and resistance exists, and is necessary for the growth of the organisation. The negative effects of these continuous modifications include "overload and burnout" (Hargreaves 1993, 16), but may be curtailed if any change was perceived to be an improvement, and the stakeholders were actively involved in its implementation.

Whilst change may follow a "metastrategic cycle" (Limerick et al, 1994) or be characterised by "punctuated equilibrium" (Limerick & Cunnington, 1993), the mechanism and methodology of the change has less of an impact that the process of change itself.

In allowing time and space (Hill, 1995, 49) for reflection, enquiry and professional dialogue, the teacher librarian may provide an exemplar for coping with the negative emotions engendered by change and innovation.

Organisational Structure

Traditional heirachical structure within the school situation invests power in the principal. Whilst this may be necessary from an administrative point of view, it is somewhat of a moot point. In discussing the failure of many educational reforms, Kretovics et al (1991, 295) attribute this failure to the fact that the changes have been characterised by "top-down" models which disempower most of the stakeholders.

It is noted that in NSW government schools, budget allocations for
professional development have been drastically reduced in recent years. Should the principal perceive professional development as a cost factor rather than a benefit (Matzdorf et al , 1997), it is unlikely to gain his support. Addleson (c 1998) attributes this decline in funding to the traditional macro-organisational approach of viewing "infrastructure as an asset, and people as liabilities". However, it is not appropriate to consider personnel in this light, as Addleson (ibid) stresses.

In addition, innovation implies risk taking (Hirose, 1992). Current educational organisation does not support unavailing propositions. The nature of accountability in government schools determines to a large extent the school principal's response to suggestions of innovation at the local (school) level. However, Santos (c 1998) is cognisant of the fact that rather than viewing these as failures, a learning organisation views activities of this nature as "unsuccessful experiments" that are part of the learning process itself.

Reflecting on current structures, Hough & Paine (1997, 11) indicate that framework that now exists in education institutions was developed to meet the needs of the industrial era, not the Information Age which characterises commerce, society and education. The need for organisational learning for long term organisational survival is noted by Fishman (1997). Commenting that society is experiencing a "revolution in human thought" with simultaneous paradigm shifts occurring in apparently diverse disciplines, Dunning (1997) observes that there is a convergence in creating systems that are typified by networks, multilinearity, nodes and links.

In NSW, many attempts at educational reforms have been centred on an alteration of organisational structure. "Clusters" of NSW government schools were formed in the late 1980s. Five years later these were disbanded in favour of larger "districts" , accompanied by the dissolution of the Regional structure. However, there has been no change within individual schools. As school culture is a unique attribute within a single school, and issues such as professional development, best educational practice, colleagial relationships and collaboration are dependent on the school's culture, there has been little significant improvement as a result of reforms affecting organisational structure at state level. The uniqueness of each school's culture requires schools to formulate a "logic unique to its restructuring effort". (Barth 1991, 125).

The 'one-size-fits-all" solutions mandated by government and administrative legislation must be tailored for each individual school in order to conform to the culture of each school.

However, it is noted that as a result of the Scott Report (1989), the abolition of the "list system" (where one only had to wait on a list until a vacancy occurred, irrespective of competence, suitability or calibre) in favour of merit selection has had a significant effect on the appointment of the school's principal. This, in turn, will eventually assist in amending school culture, and therefore promote the possibility of changing schools into information literate learning communities by changing managerial perspectives and priorities.

The leadership of a school, as with any organisation, extends beyond the managerial role. Strong leaders are necessary for organisations undergoing change (Levinson & Rosenthal 1984,2), with leadership and vision being possible from any position within the organisation (Limerick et al, 1994). Leithwood (1992, 8) lays the blame for educational reform squarely at the feet of the "existing power relationships in schools".

Both interpersonal skills and systems competencies (Hames 1994, 253) are necessary for effective leadership. Teacher librarians may combine their holistic approach, collaborative practices and integration of innovation with more personal networks to provide mentoring, personal coaching and feedback, thereby demonstrating many leadership qualities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Effective change to organisational culture, philosophy and practice is not an easily obtainable goal. In the school context, this may be even more difficult to achieve.

Without the genuine support of teachers, any attempt at change will be unsuccessful (Hargreaves 1993, 16). Teachers must not only accept the inevitability of change, but must also understand the rationales for any proposed changes.

Further, in order to develop an information literate learning community, teachers as facilitators of learning will need to acquire high levels of information literacy themselves. This will require a commitment from the teachers together with appropriate funding and support from both the organisation administering the school, and the school itself.

Lincoln (1987, 16) states that a whole school approach is necessary, and suggests some appropriate strategies:

A working party comprised of volunteers may examine the current system. To achieve credibility, the presence of members of the school's executive would ideally be included. The teacher librarian can initiate the proposal for the construction of the working party, and subsequently join as a volunteer.
Presentations to other members of staff will raise awareness of the issues to be addressed. Again the teacher librarian may contribute to this process by either facilitating presentations by others, or making the presentation themselves.
Teaching programs must not be constructed in isolation, either by individual teachers or faculty. In order to ensure school-wide information literacy strategies across the curriculum, a central reference point for collating and cross checking is necessary. In the recent past, NSW government secondary schools had a "Leading Teacher" that generally fulfilled a similar role as that of the Curriculum Coordinator in Catholic and independent secondary schools. [It should be noted that the "Leading Teacher" role no longer exists as such.] Whilst these roles imply a whole-school perspective, the teacher librarian additionally has specialised knowledge of the resources that may support and enhance the curriculum outcomes, and is ideally suited to collaborate in this regard.

Whilst Lincoln's approach is highly noteworthy, the strategies proposed above cannot be effective within the constraints imposed by the barriers previously discussed. However, it is possible to make improvements at classroom level.

Teachers must not only change the way that content is presented, they must also consider an alteration to the concept of presenter. Educational experiences that are enriched through access to a wide variety of information sources is required. This may be achieved through collaboration with the school's teacher librarian.

The development of authentic assessment tasks is necessary to replace "projects and assignments" that require little more than the presentation of the work of others.

It may be hoped that by individuals taking risks by developing educational practices that embrace the concepts of information literate learning communities, gradual change to some of the barriers may occur, thereby laying the foundations for a whole school approach. Fullan et al (1990, 14) view this approach as a catalyst for innovation, linking classroom practice to school improvement. While this is to be viewed as a long-term goal, the nature of change makes this option possibly a more pragmatic strategy.

Addleson (c1998) asserts that "structure and strategic plans" have little to do with organisational achievement, as organisational structure is composed of relationships between individuals and groups, and is shaped by individual's attitudes towards others both within and beyond the rganisation. Thus, there is a requirement to amend the mechanistic metaphor for organisations to one based on the concept of a community.

It has generally been accepted in the past that the altering the descriptive language of organisations will bring about a change in the perceptions of organisational structure will eventually occur. However, as NSW government schools undergo yet another restructure in 2003, there is a notable amount of cynicism amoungst experienced teachers regarding the possibility of any meaningful change.

The implementation of change is not linear (Carlopio 1998, 5), and must progress through various stages over time, with the commitment from stakeholders that is achieved through shared decision-making, common vision, collaboration and the establishment of support structures. Teacher librarian's work practices have provided a strong foundation in innovation, change and leadership, in addition to expertise in both the theory and practice of information literacy. With these competencies and skills well developed in qualified, experienced information professionals, a school's teacher librarian may be considered to be vital to successful implementation of change.

CONCLUSION

Paradoxically, the very same factors that produce the need for the development of schools as information literate learning communities, present barriers to a successful outcome. School culture, stake holders perceptions, societal effects, organisational structure and the nature of change itself are together creating both the need for, and method of, continuous improvement to education and its outcomes.

However, further complications arise external to the school environment. Knowledge is demonstratably not static. The technologies for accessing information are being developed at a rate never before witnessed in the history of civilisation. Society itself is changing, together with developments in research on learning and work practices.

The combination of these factors has produced a scenario where the nature of education, together with the paradigms adopted by educational institutions, must change in order to ensure that the citizens of the future - our school children of the present - can exist and grow in a world characterised by change, unpredictability and enterprise.

Therefore, the future of education, if not society itself, is dependent on the development and operation of schools as information literate learning communities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Updated April 22, 2001. Reformatted and moved to this site December 28, 2006.

SCHOOLS AS INFORMATION LITERATE
LEARNING COMMUNITIES

Amanda Credaro © 1999-2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

INFORMATION LITERACY