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THE INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF
CHILDREN'S LITERATURE

Amanda Credaro ©1999-2006

Overview

Whilst the term 'children's literature' is not easily defined, its use in fulfilling a number of functions within a whole school curriculum cannot to be denied. These include its use as a resource for language development (Zhang & Alex, 1995), an extension tool for gifted readers (Collins & Aiex, 1996), a vehicle for metacomprehension assessment (Standiford, 1984), an alternative text (Van Sledright & Kelly, 1998), a utility for disabled students (Williams & McLean, 1997) and a vehicle for addressing equity issues (Sulzby et al, 1993).

Within specific curriculum documents, such as the English K-6 Syllabus, the use of literature is prescribed, in order to fulfil the outcomes and objectives of the policy. The application of material that falls within the general descriptions of 'children's literature' is most appropriate to achieve those goals.

What is Children's Literature?

Lobban (1989:10) discusses the purpose of literature, but has difficulty defining the concept. Nearly a decade later, the matter has not been completely clarified, with various authorities stressing different aspects of the material collectively known as literature.

Similarly, 'children's literature' defies definition. Hanson (1998) produces a selection of quotations in order to demonstrate the difficulties of producing a single, concise definition of 'children's literature'. She recommends that an appropriate definition is:

"...the material created for and widely read, viewed and heard by children, that has an imaginative element..."


The School Cataloguing Information Service (1997) provides a list of genre headings which allow an overview of the material which can be included in the broad category of children's literature. These include:
  • Adventure Stories
  • Love Stories
  • Animal Stories
  • Mystery and Suspense Stories
  • Australian Stories
  • New Zealand Stories
  • Choose your own Stories
  • School Stories
  • Crime Stories
  • Science Fiction Stories
  • Family Sagas
  • Stories in Rhyme
  • Fantasy
  • Supernatural Stories
  • Historical Fiction
  • Westerns
  • Horror Stories
  • Wordless Stories

Whilst the traditional view of literature in general focuses on text-based material, it is appropriate to include interactive software (Johnstone, 1997), hyperfiction (Snyder, 1998) and visual material ( Whitin, 1996) in the classification of children's literature.

A Brief History of the Development of Children's Literature

"Obedient miniature adult, mischievous free spirit, or mini-consumer - the image of the child in society has changed many times over the past three hundred years". (University of Delaware, 1998)

The history of the development of children's literature is fraught with the consuming desire to impose adult values on children. The Bible was considered the only reading material necessary for children (Clyde, 1983), and all early efforts in reading instruction were ultimately directed at achieving comprehension of this work.



In the nineteenth century, works of literary merit, although not specifically aimed at children, were made available but only to children of middle and upper classes.

This century has seen the development of literature specifically for children, catering to their wants and needs. Development in this area is continuing as educational theories evolve and specific requirements of individual learners are identified.

Books in general have become more accessible, with a greater number of purchasing points, lower costs and greater emphasis in responding to consumer demands. Dow (1998) notes that publishers have altered format and content to reflect the contemporary recreational requirements of youth raised in an era of electronic entertainment.


Function of Children's Literature in the School Curriculum

The New South Wales Board of Studies (BOS) English K-6 Syllabus document, states that "Language is central to students' intellectual, social and emotional development and has an essential role in all key learning areas". (BOS, 1998:6)

The rationale for the Syllabus states that the three main interrelated uses of language are:

to interact with others
to create and interpret texts
to develop understandings about the world and ourselves
(BOS, 1998:6)

Based on research into language and learning, the Syllabus includes different theoretical perspectives. Johnston (1997:7) notes the psycholinguistic and social nature of the reading process, and the Syllabus itself reflects this relationship. The diagram below illustrates the relationship between language and learning.


From English K-6 Syllabus (Board of Studies, 1998:7)

This syllabus is divided into four strands:

Values and Attitudes
Talking and Listening
Reading
Writing


Each of these strands is further divided into substrands. The reading strand is comprised of 'Learning to Read' and 'Context and Text', and examination of the objectives and outcomes demonstrates the appropriateness of children's literature to achieve these goals.

The document formulates a social purpose together with an appropriate text type. For example, Narrative is suggested for entertainment, creativity, emotive stimulation, motivation, guidance and teaching. Literary Recount and Literary Description similarly present opportunities for active participation. (BOS, 1998:68).

Research Supporting the Use of Children's Literature
The English K-6 Syllabus requires students from Early Stage 1 to demonstrate 'emerging awareness that written and visual texts convey meaning' (BOS 1998:32).

Three different types of research that support literature in the curriculum are identified by Wagner (1985): first language acquisition, emergent literacy and effective classroom experiences . It is self evident that children's literature is eminently suitable for at least the first two, if not all three areas.

Current research on critical thinking and cognitive development demonstrates the link between language and thinking ability. Zhang and Alex (1995) bemoan the fact that in teacher-centred classrooms, dominated by teacher discourse and worksheets, the development of oral language is not as progressive as that where (children's) literature dominates.

Supporting this view are Senechal et al (1996), who undertook a study of 47 first-grade children. Investigating the effects of storybook exposure, it was found that language skills and emergent literacy were enhanced. Similarly, Otto (1993) undertook a project designed to increase inner-city children's opportunities to interact with storybooks. She found that 75% of those in the study demonstrated a higher level of emergent reading at the end of the project.

The role of interactive storybook software was examined by Johnston (1997), in relation to kindergarten children, finding a significant increase in verbal ability was measurable after a 7 week period.

Kelly (1990) examined third graders' response to children's literature that was read aloud to them, and determined that the exposure fostered comprehension, discussion, writing skills and promoted emotional involvement.

The recommendation of children's literature to promote critical thinking was made by Sprod (1995) after using a number of case studies. Caldwell (1991) emphasises the dynamic process of constructing meaning from text.

In a study of 192 teachers and their teaching practices, Lehman et al (1990) found that ownership of the learning produced more satisfactory results in relation to emergent literacy.

Children's literature can be applied as an alternative to set "textbooks". Van Sledright & Kelly (1998) found that fifth grade students who were permitted to use alternative texts - that they had selected - demonstrated emerging signs of advanced thinking, in addition to the development of information-quality judgment skills.

Additionally, Angeletti (1990) conducted research on teaching critical thinking strategies with the use of student-selected reading materials. It was proven that gains were made in skills areas and attitudes towards reading. The validity of the study was ensured by the use of high, average and low ability readers in second, fourth and fifth grades.

In terms of Schema Theory , exposure to a wide range of literature increases the learners' skills in critical thinking by providing a broad knowledge base in scenarios (Smith, 1991). Referring to the earlier research of Eckhoff (1983), Smith summarises the results of a study of second graders who demonstrated an


increase in writing ability after exposure to a range of different literary forms, when compared to a control group.

Readers draw on background experiences to compose a text, whether in concrete or abstract form. For this reason, reading offers the potential for higher level thinking (Collins, 1993). Through (children's) literature, students learn to read personally, actively and deeply (Sweet, 1993). The Syllabus requires students at Stage 1 to express 'their own interpretation' from information provided by texts (BOS, 1998:32).

Staniford (1984) investigated the application of children's literature and its value from a metacognative perspective. In identifying common features of comprehension deficiencies, it was concluded that contributing to this deficit was the lack of appropriate schemata. This issue could be addressed by the application of children's literature when and as appropriate. Further, Douglas & Hartman (1993) argue that encouraging students to read across texts promotes deeper understanding and response.

Equity issues may be addressed through the integration of children's literature within the curriculum. D'Alessandro (1990) undertook research on the introduction of a literature-based reading program for emotionally handicapped children, and found that not only did they learn to read more proficiently, but also there was a measurable increase in their desire to read.

Englert et al (1995) explored the effect of an integrated reading-writing program that utilised children's literature for the development of literacy with mildly intellectually handicapped children, and reported positive benefits of this approach.

The use of visual material in teaching deaf children language skills was examined by Williams & McLean (1997). Although there was a severe delay in learning language, deaf children's responses to picture books were found to be similar to those of hearing children.


Children experiencing learning difficulties were exposed to children's literature. A longitudinal study of low socioeconomic status background African-American kindergarten and first grade students was undertaken by Sulzby et al (1993). Despite categorically denied being able to read, the students responded positively to literature that was identified as being more appropriate to their personal circumstances.

Talented and gifted students may not have their needs met without adequate access to children's literature. Collins & Aiex (1995) note that a differentiated reading program is appropriate for these learners.

Bibliotherapy is defined as being the use of books in order to assist with resolution of problems of a personal nature (Pardeck & Pardeck, 1989). The increase in societal problems is noted throughout Western culture, and Ouzts (1991) stresses the need for educators to be aware of this facet. By the use of children's literature, material that is relevant for today's children may be used to great advantage.

Smith (1991) states that contemporary society no longer views literature as primarily a means for escape and adventure. Whilst serving a recreational purpose, some controversy arises over the emergence of the genre of "Dirty Realism" (Legge, 1997). Dealing with contemporary issues such as drug addiction, suicide, family breakups and homelessness, this form of literature is directly targeted to the adolescent. This serves a valuable purpose in modern society, with the view that this content provides an avenue that enables young readers to "experience danger vicariously, and therefore safely".

Aesthetic involvement was examined by Altieri (1996). Although the study demonstrated that there was not a significant influence exerted by the ethnicity of the student or culture portrayed in the literature used for the research, the conclusion was reached that the integration of multicultural literature into the curriculum was supported because of the rich experiences provided, and the fact


that it allowed for students of differing ethnicities to enjoy books reflecting their own cultural heritage.

CONCLUSION: RATIONALE FOR CHILDREN'S LITERATURE



The benefits of holistic learning are noted by Cove & Love (1996). "Integration of intellectual, social and emotional aspects" (Brooks & Brooks, 1993) is vital for successful learning. Children's literature addresses all of these miens.

Research has demonstrated that the consolidation of the role of children's literature will produce benefits to the development of language, and thus literacy. Critical thinking will be enhanced, as will the learners' engagement in their learning.

The rich variety of material offered by children's literature stimulates language growth, and thus improves the learners' empowerment by increasing communication skills.

In addition, children's literature enables equity and access issues to be addressed. The needs of the individual are acknowledged; appropriate action is possible in responding to the individual differences between learners.


* * *

BIBLIOGRAPHY



Altieri, J.L. (1996) Children's written responses to multicultural texts - a look at aesthetic involvement and the focuses of aesthetically complex responses. Reading Research & Instruction 35 (3), 237 - 248.

Angeletti, S. (1990) Using literature to develop critical thinking. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, May 6 - 11, 1990. Atlanta, GA. ED 320107.

Board of Studies (1998) English K-6 Syllabus . Sydney: Board of Studies.

Brooks, J.G. & Brooks, M.G. (1993) In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Caldwell, J. (1991) A new look at the old guided reading lesson. Journal of the Wisconsin Reading Association 35 (2), 1 - 7.

Clyde, L. (1983) Australian school libraries in the nineteenth century. Australian Library Journal 32 (2), 11 - 17.

Collins, N.D. (1993) Teaching critical reading through literature. ERIC Digest. ED 363869.

Collins, N.D. & Aiex, N.K. (1995) Gifted readers and reading instruction . ERIC Digest. ED 379637

Cove, P.G. & Love, A.G. (1996) Enhanced student learning: Intellectual, social and emotional integration. ERIC Digest. ED 400741.

D'Alessandro, M. (1990) Accommodating emotionally handicapped children through a literature-based reading program. Reading Teacher 44 (4), 288 - 293.

Dow, J. (1998) Issues in collection management. In K. Dillon and J. Henri Providing more with less: Collection management in Australian school libraries. Wagga Wagga: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University. 181 - 197.

Eckhoff, B. (1983) How reading affects children's writing. Language Arts 60 (5), 607 - 616.

Englert, C.S., Garmon, A., Mariage, T., Rozendal, M. Tarrant, K. & Urba, J. (1995) The early literacy project: Connecting across the literacy curriculum. Learning Disability Quarterly 18 (4), 253 - 275.



Hanson, K. (1998) Study guide. ETL402: Children's literature for teacher librarians. Wagga Wagga: Open Learning Institute, Charles Sturt University.

Hartman, D.K. & Hartman, J.A. (1993) Reading across texts: Expanding the role of the reader. Reading Teacher 47 (3), 202 - 211.

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Legge, K. (1997) What the *#@! are kids reading today? Not what you might think. The Australian Magazine , March. 8 - 9, 10 - 14, 16 - 18.

Lehman, B.A. "and others" (1990) Teacher perceptions and practices for using children's literature in elementary reading instruction. Paper presented at the 40th Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference, November 27 - December 1st, 1990. Miami, FL. ED 329937.

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New South Wales Department of Education and Training (1997) Getting the foundation right.: Preparing students for lifelong learning. Online. Available Feb 3, 1999.

Otto, B.W. (1993) Signs of emergent literacy among inner-city kindergartners in a storybook reading program. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties 9 (2), 151 - 162.

Ouzts, D.T. (1991) The emergence of bibliotherapy as a discipline. Reading Horizons 31 (3), 199 - 206.

Pardeck, J.T. & Pardeck, J.A. (1989) Bibliotherapy: A tool for helping preschool children deal with developmental change related to family relationships. Early Childhood Development and Care 47, 107 - 29.

Schools Catalogue Information Service (1997): Guide to practice: Fiction. SCIS Standards for Cataloguing and Data Entry. Melbourne: Curriculum Corporation, 4.5 - 4.6.


Senechal, M., LeFevre, J., Thomas, E. & Daley, K.E. (1996) Early exposure to storybooks as a predictor of reading in grade 1. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development, August, 1996. Quebec City, Canada.

Smith, C.B. (1991) Helping children to understand literary genres. Reading Teacher 44 (6), 440 - 441.

Snyder, I. (1998) Hyperfiction: Its possibilities in English . Online. Available
Feb 3, 1999.

Sprod, T. (1995) Cognitive development, philosophy and children's literature. Early Childhood Development and Care 107 , 23 - 33.

Standiford, S.N. (1984) Metacomprehension. ERIC Digest . ED 250670.

Sulzby, E. "and others" (1993) Repeated readings of literature and low socioeconomic status black kindergartners and first graders. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties 9 (2) 183 - 196.

Sweet, A.P. (1993) Transforming ideas for teaching and learning to read. In Norma Collins (1993) Teaching critical reading through literature. ERIC Digest. ED 363869.

University of Delaware (1998) World of the child: Two hundred years of children's books. University of Delaware Library: Special Collections Department. Online. Available March 3, 1999.

Van Sledright, B.A. & Kelly, C. (1998) Reading American history: The influence of multiple sources on six fifth graders. Elementary School Journal 98 (3), 239 - 265.

Wagner, B.J. (1985) Integrating the language arts. ERIC Digest. ED 263627.

Williams, C.L. & McLean, M.M. (1997) Young deaf children's response to picture book reading in a preschool setting. Research in the Teaching of English 31 (3), 337 -366.

Whitin, P.E. (1996) Exploring visual response to literature. Research in the Teaching of English 30 (1), 114 - 140.

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Updated April 22, 2001. Reformatted and moved to this site December 28, 2006.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Amanda Credaro © 2006.